Thinking About Learning
As teachers and professionals, we continually reflect on how we can improve our students’ outcomes. However, finding time to engage in educational research can be challenging when coping with a full curriculum, a packed school calendar, and the many additional requirements of being a teacher. This series of posts will share current ideas about how learning works and introduce or reintroduce some practical, research-backed approaches to learning and teaching.
In this series, I will explore:
- How Learning Happens
- How Memory Works
- Chunking and Mental Representations
- Why Forgetting Is Good
- The Testing Effect
- Overlearning
- Massed, Spaced, and Interleaved Practice
I hope much of this discussion will sound like common sense, though some might feel counterintuitive. You may have heard much of what is covered before and might even be doing much of it already. Regardless of your current position, I hope these posts give you some food for thought about how (even small) changes can impact your students. It is important to note that I don’t have the perfect model. I constantly refine what I do in light of my and others’ research. I aim to do more of what works and less of what doesn’t. All the ideas discussed are backed by research but should be tried and tested in your context, then modified and tested again until they give the best outcomes for your learners.
Throughout this series, we will see some key themes appearing, namely:
- Learning is complex and requires effort
- There is no limit to what we can learn
- Learning is a function of memory, knowledge, and motivation
- Learning requires attention
- Learning requires practice
- Learning is about making connections
That’s all for now. In the next part, we’ll explore in detail how learning really works.
How Learning Works
Welcome back to our series on cognitive science for teachers. If you missed Part 1, I encourage you to read it so you understand the key themes discussed throughout this series.
Learning is about neurons – the tiny building blocks of the brain – and the connections they form. Each neuron has an input and an output. When one neuron is stimulated enough, it fires, sending signals to its connected neurons. These connections, called synapses, are strengthened the more they are used. It’s a case of “use it or lose it.”
This strengthening of connections is the essence of learning. The more a pathway is used, the easier it becomes for signals to travel that route again. This process is why repetition matters—each time we revisit a piece of knowledge or skill, we reinforce those neural connections.
However, the process isn’t linear. Learning is messy, much like the incoming tide. At first, it feels like each wave (or piece of knowledge) recedes, leaving the beach as before. But over time, as waves overlap, the tide rises, and progress becomes evident. In the same way, students need repeated exposure to concepts before authentic learning occurs.
This basic understanding of how neurons work underscores the importance of effort in learning. The brain grows and adapts with use, but it requires sustained attention and practice to build strong, lasting connections.
Practical Implications For teachers, this means creating opportunities for students to revisit and use knowledge regularly. It also means embracing that learning takes time and isn’t always immediately visible. Even when the process feels frustrating, encouraging students to persist helps build the resilience needed for long-term success.
Stay tuned for the next part of the series, where we’ll explore the critical role of memory in learning and why it underpins everything we do in the classroom.
The Role of Memory in Learning
This section builds on the foundational ideas from Part 2 and focuses on memory’s pivotal role in learning. If you missed the previous part, I encourage you to catch up to see how neurons and synapses set the stage for what we’ll talk about here.
Memory is the foundation of all learning. Knowledge cannot be stored, retrieved, or built upon without it. Two primary types of memory are at play in the learning process: working memory and long-term memory. Each plays a critical role.
Working Memory Working memory is the brain’s “notepad”—a temporary storage area where sensory input and prior knowledge are held and processed. However, its capacity is limited. Most people can only hold 4 to 7 pieces of information in working memory. This is why students often struggle with multi-step problems or complex tasks.
When we introduce new material, it is processed in working memory. If the information is not attended to or rehearsed, it is lost. Conversely, with sufficient attention and repetition, the brain encodes this information into long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory Long-term memory, in contrast, is vast. It stores everything we know or can do, from facts and ideas to problem-solving skills and habits. Learning occurs when knowledge is added to or modified within long-term memory.
The more we know about a topic, the easier it is to learn more about it. This is often called the “Matthew Effect”—the rich get richer. For example, students who already understand basic algebra will find it easier to grasp quadratic equations because they can connect the new knowledge to their existing foundation.
Practical Implications
- Limit cognitive load by breaking lessons into manageable chunks.
- Use visual aids or scaffolds to support working memory.
- Help students make connections to prior knowledge to facilitate encoding into long-term memory.
- Provide opportunities for repeated exposure to strengthen memory traces.
In the next part, we’ll explore the concepts of chunking and mental representations, examining how they make learning more efficient and durable. Don’t miss it!
Chunking and Mental Representations
Following up on our discussion of memory, let’s explore how chunking and mental representations make learning more efficient and help students handle complex problems. If you haven’t read the previous sections, I encourage you to do so, because they lay the groundwork for what we’ll cover here.
What is Chunking? Chunking is a process where individual pieces of information are grouped into larger, meaningful units. For example, rather than remembering a string of numbers like 1-9-4-5, grouping them as 1945, i.e., a year, is easier. This technique helps reduce cognitive load, freeing up working memory for higher-order thinking.
For students, chunking is invaluable. Consider a student learning how to add fractions. Initially, they may see it as a series of disconnected steps. With practice, those steps become a single “chunk” in their memory, allowing them to focus on more complex tasks like solving algebraic equations.
Mental Representations Mental representations are networks of neurons that store complex ideas, skills, or processes. For example, a mental representation of “driving” includes everything from starting the car to following road signs. Experts rely on these representations to perform tasks effortlessly, while novices must think through each step.
In mathematics, building mental representations is essential. A student fluent in basic arithmetic can tackle more complex problems because they have a solid foundation upon which to build. These representations are developed through deliberate practice and reflection.
Practical Implications
- Teach students to group related information into meaningful chunks.
- Use deliberate practice to help students build and refine mental representations.
- Provide opportunities for students to reflect on their learning, strengthening their mental representations over time.
Next, we’ll explore why forgetting isn’t always bad and how it can play a surprising role in making learning more durable. Stay tuned!
Why Forgetting Is Good
Let’s continue our journey into cognitive science by exploring a counterintuitive idea: forgetting can benefit learning. If you missed the earlier sections, you might want to review them, as they set the stage for this discussion.
The Role of Forgetting in Learning At first glance, forgetting seems like the enemy of learning. However, research has shown that it is critical in strengthening memory. The process of retrieval—bringing information back from memory—is most effective when some forgetting has occurred. When we struggle to recall something, retrieval strengthens the memory and makes it more durable.
This is sometimes referred to as the “desirable difficulty” principle. By allowing some forgetting to occur, we encourage students to engage in effortful retrieval, which boosts retrieval strength (how easily we can recall something) and storage strength (how well it is embedded in memory).
Practical Implications
- Design opportunities for students to recall information after short delays.
- Emphasise retrieval practice over passive review.
- Encourage self-testing and discourage over-reliance on notes.
In the next part, we’ll discuss the testing effect and how assessment can become a tool for deeper learning. Don’t miss it!
The Testing Effect
Building on the idea of retrieval, let’s delve into the testing effect—a phenomenon where taking tests enhances learning and retention more effectively than additional study. If you haven’t read the previous sections, they provide essential context for understanding this topic.
How Testing Enhances Learning Testing isn’t just a means of assessment; it’s a powerful learning tool. When tested, students engage in active retrieval, strengthening memory pathways. Studies show that even without feedback, taking a test can improve long-term retention more than simply reviewing material.
One explanation is that testing helps create multiple retrieval routes to the same knowledge, making it more accessible when needed. It also helps students identify gaps in their understanding, guiding future study.
Practical Implications
- Incorporate low-stakes quizzes into regular teaching.
- Encourage students to use flashcards or self-quizzing.
- Frame testing as a learning tool, not just an evaluative measure.
Next, we’ll explore overlearning and whether “more practice” is always better. Stay tuned!
Overlearning
In this part, we’ll examine the concept of overlearning and whether continuing to practice after achieving mastery is beneficial. If you’ve been following the series, you’ll see how this builds on the principles of memory and retrieval discussed earlier.
What Is Overlearning? Overlearning occurs when students continue to practice a skill or review material even after demonstrating proficiency. While overlearning can improve immediate performance, research suggests that its benefits for long-term retention diminish over time.
Instead of focusing solely on overlearning, revisiting material periodically—a principle known as spaced practice—may be more effective.
Practical Implications
- Encourage students to move on to new material once they achieve proficiency, with plans to revisit it later.
- Practice a mixture of techniques to enhance retention.
- Avoid overloading students with repetitive tasks that offer limited long-term benefits.
The next part discusses massed, spaced, and interleaved practice and how timing influences learning. Stay tuned!
Massed, Spaced, and Interleaved Practice
To conclude our series, let’s explore how the timing and structure of practice can dramatically affect learning outcomes. If you’re new to this series, reviewing earlier parts will give you some valuable context.
Massed Practice involves concentrating learning into a single session or short period. While it can temporarily create the illusion of mastery, retention drops off quickly.
Spaced Practice distributes learning over time, leading to better retention and understanding. By revisiting material after forgetting begins, students strengthen their memory more effectively.
Interleaved Practice involves mixing different topics or skills within a single study session. While it may seem more challenging to students, research shows it improves understanding and retention.
Practical Implications
- Avoid cramming; schedule practice sessions over days or weeks.
- Mix related topics in assignments or quizzes.
- Teach students about the benefits of desirable difficulties.
Thank you for following this series. I hope it has provided valuable insights and practical ideas to enhance your teaching!
Stuart